2020-2ν•™κΈ°, λŒ€ν•™μ—μ„œ β€˜ν˜„λŒ€λŒ€μˆ˜1’ μˆ˜μ—…μ„ λ“£κ³  κ³΅λΆ€ν•œ λ°”λ₯Ό μ •λ¦¬ν•œ κΈ€μž…λ‹ˆλ‹€. 지적은 μ–Έμ œλ‚˜ ν™˜μ˜μž…λ‹ˆλ‹€ :)

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2020-2ν•™κΈ°, λŒ€ν•™μ—μ„œ β€˜ν˜„λŒ€λŒ€μˆ˜1’ μˆ˜μ—…μ„ λ“£κ³  κ³΅λΆ€ν•œ λ°”λ₯Ό μ •λ¦¬ν•œ κΈ€μž…λ‹ˆλ‹€. 지적은 μ–Έμ œλ‚˜ ν™˜μ˜μž…λ‹ˆλ‹€ :)


κ΅°λ‘ μ—μ„œλŠ” 두 κ°€μ§€ μ’…λ₯˜μ˜ Factor Group이 μ‘΄μž¬ν•œλ‹€.

  1. Factor Group from Normal Subgroup
  2. Factor Group from Homomorphism



Factor Group을 μ •μ˜ν•˜λ €λ©΄, λ¨Όμ € Factor Groupμ—μ„œ μ‚¬μš©ν•  β€œcoset κ°„μ˜ μ—°μ‚°β€œμ„ μ •μ˜ν•΄μ•Ό ν•œλ‹€!

Theorem.

Let $H \le G$, THEN the left coset multiplication is well-defined by equation

\[\begin{equation} (aH)(bH) := abH \end{equation}\]

μ΄λ•Œ, μœ„μ˜ 식 (1)이 μ„±λ¦½ν•˜μ—¬ 연산이 well-defined이 되기 μœ„ν•΄μ„ 

β€œThe left & right coset coincide, so that $aH = Ha \quad \forall a \in G$”

쑰건이 λ§Œμ‘±λ˜μ–΄μ•Ό ν•œλ‹€!! 이 쑰건은 $H$κ°€ $G$의 normal subgroupμž„μ„ λ§ν•œλ‹€!!


proof.

($\implies$) Supp. that $(aH)(bH) = abH$ is well-defined.

To show $aH = Ha$,

\[\begin{aligned} (aH)(a^{-1}H) = aa^{-1}H = eH = H \\ \end{aligned}\]

μ΄λ•Œ, $aHa^{-1} \cdot H = H$μ—μ„œ μ’Œλ³€μ˜ κ²°κ³Όκ°€ $H$에 λ‹€μ‹œ λ“€μ–΄κ°€μ•Ό ν•˜λ―€λ‘œ $aha^{-1} \in H$일 것이닀. λ”°λΌμ„œ $aHa^{-1} \subseteq H$

λ°˜λŒ€λ‘œ $a^{-1}Ha \cdot H = H$에 λŒ€ν•΄μ„œλŠ” $a^{-1}Ha \subseteq H$의 κ²°κ³Όλ₯Ό μ–»λŠ”λ‹€.

두 사싀을 잘 μ‘°ν•©ν•˜λ©΄,

\[\begin{aligned} aHa^{-1} \subseteq H & \implies aH \subseteq Ha \\ a^{-1}Ha \subseteq H & \implies Ha \subseteq aH \end{aligned}\]

λ”°λΌμ„œ $aH = Ha$의 κ²°κ³Όλ₯Ό μ–»λŠ”λ‹€. 즉, left & right coset이 μΌμΉ˜ν•˜λŠ” normal subgroup $H$이닀!


λ°˜λŒ€ λ°©ν–₯에 λŒ€ν•΄μ„œλ„ 증λͺ…을 ν•΄λ³΄μž!

($\impliedby$) Supp.that $aH = Ha \quad \forall a \in G$.

To show β€œ$(xH)(yH) = xyH$ is well-defined”,

Let $xH = x’H$, and $yH = y’H$.

Then, we have to show $(xH)(yH) = (x’H)(y’H)$; i.e. $xyH = x’y’H$.


From $xH = x’H$, $xe = x’h_1$ for some $h_1 \in H$,
and from $yH = y’H$, $ye = y’h_2$ for some $h_2 \in H$.

Then, $xy = (x’h_1)(y’h_2)$μ—μ„œ $H$κ°€ normal subgroupμ΄λ―€λ‘œ $(x’h_1)(y’h_2) = x’y’h_1h_2$.

λ”°λΌμ„œ $xyH = x’y’h_1h_2H = x’y’H$.

λ”°λΌμ„œ $H$κ°€ normal subgroup이면, Factor Group operation은 잘 μ •μ˜λœλ‹€! $\blacksquare$



이제 본격적으둜 Factor Group을 λ§Œλ“€μ–΄λ³΄μž!!

Theorem.

Let $H \le G$ be a normal subgroup,

Then the set of cosets of $H$ forms a factor group $G/H$ ($G$ mod $H$) under the binary operation.

\[(aH)(bH) = abH\]


proof.

μ‹€μ œλ‘œ $G/H$κ°€ Group인지 ν™•μΈν•˜λ©΄ λœλ‹€.

  1. Closed under opr; λ‹Ήμ—°μ“°
  2. Associativity; λ‹Ήμ—°μ“°
  3. Identity; $H$
  4. Inverse; $(aH)^{-1} = a^{-1}H$



Normal Subgroup

Normal Subgrop은 $aH = Ha \quad (\forall a \in G)$둜 μ •μ˜λ˜μ§€λ§Œ, 이 쑰건과 λ™μΉ˜μΈ 쑰건듀이 λͺ‡λͺ‡ μžˆλ‹€.

λŒ€ν‘œμ μœΌλ‘œ

\[\begin{equation} aHa^{-1} \subseteq H \quad (\forall a \in G) \end{equation}\]

이닀.

λΆ€λ“±ν˜Έ λ°©ν–₯이 ν•œ λ°©ν–₯이라 $aHa^{-1} = H$ 쑰건을 μ΄λŒμ–΄ λ‚΄κΈ°μ—λŠ” 뢀쑱해보일지도 λͺ¨λ₯Έλ‹€. ν•˜μ§€λ§Œ,

$\forall a\in G$μ΄λ―€λ‘œ Eq.(2)에 $a$ λŒ€μ‹  $a^{-1}$을 넣어도 식이 μ„±λ¦½ν•œλ‹€. λ”°λΌμ„œ

\[\begin{aligned} aHa^{-1} \subseteq H &\quad (\forall a \in G) \\ a^{-1}Ha \subseteq H &\quad (\forall a \in G) \\ \end{aligned}\]

그리고 기쑴의 Eq.(2)μ—μ„œ 양변에 $a^{-1}$, $a$λ₯Ό μ·¨ν•˜λ©΄, μ•„λž˜μ˜ 뢀등식을 μ–»λŠ”λ‹€.

\[\begin{aligned} aHa^{-1} \subseteq H &\implies a^{-1}(aHa^{-1})a \subseteq a^{-1}(H)a \\ &\implies H \subseteq a^{-1}Ha \end{aligned}\]

$a^{-1}Ha \subseteq H$, $H \subseteq a^{-1}Ha$μ΄λ―€λ‘œ $a^{-1}Ha = H$이닀. 즉, Normal Subgroup이닀! $\blacksquare$



Factor Group from Homomorphism

μ΄λ²ˆμ—” Homomorphism $\phi$λ₯Ό 톡해 Factor Group을 μ •μ˜ν•΄λ³΄μž!

Theorem.

Let $\phi: G \longrightarrow G’$ be a group homormophism.

Then, $\ker \phi = \{ g \in G \mid \phi(G) = e’\}$ is a normal subgroup.

proof.

We will show $g (\ker \phi) g^{-1} \subseteq \ker \phi \quad \forall g \in G$.

Let’s do a conjugation on $x \in \ker \phi$, $gxg^{-1}$

Then,

\[\begin{aligned} \phi(gxg^{-1}) = \phi(g) e' \phi(g^{-1}) = \phi(g) \phi(g^{-1}) = e' \end{aligned}\]

λ”°λΌμ„œ $gxg^{-1} \in \ker \phi$이닀!

λ”°λΌμ„œ $g(\ker \phi)g^{-1} \subseteq \ker \phi \quad \forall g \in G$. $\blacksquare$


Property.

Every subgroup of abelian is normal.



Mappings in Group Theory

  1. Homo-morphism
  2. Iso-morphism
  3. Auto-morphism
  4. Endo-morsphim


Homo-morphism.

pass

Iso-morphism.

Homo-morphism + (1-1 & onto)

Auto-morphism.

Iso-morphism + (self mapping; $\phi: G \longrightarrow G$)

Endo-morphism.

Homo-morphism + (self mapping)


Inner Automorphism

Let $G$ be a group, and $g \in G$.

Define $\sigma_g$ as

\[\begin{aligned} \sigma_g: G &\longrightarrow G \\ x & \longmapsto gxg^{-1} \end{aligned}\]

Then, $\sigma_g$ is a auto-morphism.

μ‹€μ œλ‘œ $\sigma_g$κ°€ Auto-morphism인지에 λŒ€ν•œ 뢀뢄을 λ„ˆλ¬΄ μ‰¬μ›Œμ„œ 생-랡 ν•˜κ² λ‹€.

μ΄λ•Œ, $\sigma_g$λŠ” $g \in G$κ°€ ν•˜λ‚˜ μ£Όμ–΄μ§ˆ λ•Œλ§ˆλ‹€ $\sigma_g$λ₯Ό 생성할 수 μžˆμœΌλ―€λ‘œ β€œInner Auto-morphismβ€œμ΄λΌκ³  ν•œλ‹€!